NS

Optogenetic Excitation:

Optogenetic excitation is the process of using light to detect, measure, and control molecular signals and cells so that we can understand their distinct functions. The entire field of optogenetics utilizes genetic engineering and optics to measure and control cells. The tools used for optogenetics can be classified into two groups based on their functions: actuators and sensors. Actuators are genetically encoded tools that control proteins by activating them with light. Some common examples of actuators are microbial opsins and optical switches. Sensors are genetically encoded tools that report molecular signals; calcium indicators are an example of a sensor.

Optogenetics specialists utilize naturally occurring ion channels called opsins, which can open or close in response to particular light wavelengths to control ion flow into and out of a cell. Scientists have improved these natural opsins through optogenetics; they have achieved this by altering the absorption spectrum by adding point mutations. They have also localized opsins to the cell membrane by introducing trafficking signals. Scientists also utilize special opsins, named microbial opsins, that can be spatiotemporally controlled precisely by turning the light on and off. This is possible because microbial opsins have specific subsets of neurons that can be targeted and expressed. The commonly used microbial opsins are Channelrhodopsins, Halorhodopsins, Archaerhodopsins, and Leptosphaeria rhodopsin. 

Source:

Addgene: Optogenetics Guide. (n.d.). Retrieved December 1, 2024, from https://www.addgene.org/guides/optogenetics/

Topic: Processed food impact on the nervous system

In today's society, around 60% of the diet of an American consists of ultra-processed foods from sources such as fast food, frozen meals, and candy. For many years, we have been aware that consuming packaged foods, such as frozen meals, snack bars, some breakfast cereals, and almost all packaged sweets, is associated with undesirable health consequences, such as a higher risk of diabetes, obesity, and cancer. However, recent research suggests that these often delicious and convenient foods also appear to have a significant negative impact on our minds. Over the last decade or two, research has indicated that the more ultra-processed foods a person consumes, the more likely they are to experience anxiety and depression. Also, Eating UPFs has been linked in a few studies to a higher risk of cognitive deterioration. 

Some experts are suggesting a new mental health disease dubbed "ultra-processed food use disorder" since these foods can behave like addictive substances. Diets high in these items have been shown to decrease the quality of sleep along with the aforementioned mental issues. A diet filled with ultra-processed foods is also connected with weight gain, Type 2 diabetes, cancer, and heart disease, but experts are still working to figure out the reason why, beyond calorie intake and nutrient composition. Researchers claim there is still a lot they don't know because the science is still in its infancy and according to some scientists, not all highly processed meals are created equal as some may even be healthy.

Citations

“The New Science on What Ultra-Processed Food Does to Your Brain: U-M LSA Department of Psychology.” LSA, lsa.umich.edu/psych/news-events/all-news/faculty-news/the-new-science-on-what-ultra-processed-food-does-to-your-brain.html. Accessed 18 Nov. 2024. 

Wadyka, Sally. “The Link between Highly Processed Foods and Brain Health.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 4 May 2023, www.nytimes.com/2023/05/04/well/eat/ultraprocessed-food-mental-health.html#:~:text=Eating%20packaged%20foods%20like%20cereal,are%20still%20piecing%20together%20why.&text=Roughly%2060%20percent%20of%20the,come%20from%20highly%20processed%20foods.

#4: Processed food impact on the nervous system.

Topic: Microexpressions

What are microexpressions? Microexpressions are facial expressions that roughly

last about 1/25 to 1/15 of a second. When people talk to me whether it is something I do not like, something I do like, or even Something I do not care about I always try to hide my facial expression, but for a split second my face will make an expression before I can neutralize it.

Whenever we go through emotions, it sets off many neurological events that result in facial muscle movements. These movements are controlled by two neural pathways in the brain. The first pathway is voluntary. It allows us to control our facial expressions. The second pathway is involuntary. It is connected to the limbic system which controls our emotions in our brain. This pathway is responsible for very fast microexpressions that we can not control.

References:

NeuroLaunch.com. (2024b, October 22). NeuroLaunch.com: Where Grey Matter Matters. https://neurolaunch.com/

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Study definition & meaning. Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/study

#8, The effect of cannabis on the brain.

Cannabinoids, the active compounds in cannabis, interact with the brain's endocannabinoid system, influencing processes like memory, emotion, and reward. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive component, can lead to structural changes in brain regions like the amygdala and nucleus accumbens, which are associated with emotion, addiction, and cognitive impairments such as memory and processing speed, especially with early or heavy use. Additionally, cannabis use is linked to mental health issues, including anxiety, depression, and psychosis. Consistent or frequent use of THC can create a dependency or addiction to it, potentially leading to cravings and withdrawal. The potency of cannabis products also increase these risks, heightening cognitive impairments and mental health challenges over time.

Cannabinoids also show promise in treating neurological conditions like epilepsy, pain, and mood disorders. Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive compound, can reduce seizures and influence neural communication. Yet, the effects of cannabinoids can vary significantly based on individual factors like age, health, and genetics. Cannabinoids may also have neuroprotective properties, which could be beneficial in conditions like multiple sclerosis (MS) and Parkinson's disease. In MS, cannabinoids may reduce muscle spasticity and improve mobility, while in Parkinson's, they could alleviate motor symptoms and tremors.

Harvard Medical School. “Cannabis and the Brain.” On the Brain, Harvard Mahoney Neuroscience Institute, 2014. https://hms.harvard.edu/news-events/publications-archive/brain/cannabis-brain.

AHA Journals. “Pharmacology of Cannabinoids: Mechanisms of Action and Effects on Cardiovascular and Central Nervous Systems.” Stroke, American Heart Association Journals, 2021. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/STR.0000000000000396.

Szutorisz, Henrietta, and Yasmin L. Hurd. “High Times for Cannabidiol: Can Cannabinoids Treat Epilepsy, Pain, and Other Disorders?” Frontiers in Neurology, PMC, 2019. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6915047/.

Topic: Impact of short videos on the brain

Today, thirty-three percent of American adults use TikTok (Gottfried, Jeffrey). This is only a portion of the app's worldwide user base, which is one and a half billion people (Crispo, Nathan). A platform with an outreach this large should benefit society. Sadly, this is not the case. The use of TikTok or other short video formats is addicting and can lead to negative neurological effects.

 Despite being a large social media platform. It pales in comparison to other social media platforms, such as Facebook. What is different about TikTok is that it has more engagement per person than most other social media, with the average user spending ninety-five minutes per day on the app (Crispo, Nathan). The secret behind the success is how the app is set up. TikTok provides an algorithm for short videos that are produced by a large pool of content creators. This is known as the endless scroll. Also, the fact that the content being generated by users of the app drives people to watch and see into people’s lives. What truly makes TikTok, and similar apps addicting is the principle of random reinforcement. Watching multiple videos back-to-back gives the brain small dopamine spikes, which is the same thing that happens to people when they gamble (Atanasova, Aleksandra). 

Along with being addicting, these videos can cause negative neurological effects on their users. The power of relieving boredom creates a feeling of constant boredom when not using the app, causing further dependence on the small dopamine boosts, and effectively worsening their attention span and quality of life. Also, the lack of text inside the short videos causes the users' reading skills to fall behind. This is especially true in the young users (Atanasova, Aleksandra). Correlations have been made between use of these apps and depression as well. Vice chair of child and adolescent psychiatry for Northwell Health Dr. Victor Fornari says that an extreme spike in suicide and depressive thoughts can be connected to the rise of short video social media (Crispo, Nathan).

With this information in mind, changes should be made to limit the usage of short videos on social media. The negative effects of this media are detrimental to the growth and livelihood of the younger generation. If nothing is done, our society will continue to be affected.

Citations:

Atanasova, Aleksandra. “Tiktok Is Killing Your Brain, One Short-Form Video at a Time.” Social Media Psychology, 18 Sept. 2022, socialmediapsychology.eu/2022/08/18/tiktok-is-killing-your-brain-right-now/.

Crispo, Nathan. “Tiktok Brain: Can We Save Children’s Attention Spans?” Richmond Journal of Law and Technology, 5 Mar. 2024, jolt.richmond.edu/2024/03/06/tiktok-brain-can-we-save-childrens-attention-spans/.

Gottfried, Jeffrey. “Americans’ Social Media Use.” Pew Research Center, Pew Research Center, 31 Jan. 2024, www.pewresearch.org/internet/2024/01/31/americans-social-media-use/. 

Emotional Regulation

Many people respond to a certain act in many different ways. People can struggle with controlling their emotions though, and sometimes their response can be unhealthy. Having this skill is key to life, as it is necessary for your relationships with other people. Sometimes stress can affect one's emotional regulation, and they may say things that not only do they not mean, but also that they might not even remember what they said. Children are not expected to fully understand or be aware of emotional regulation, but young adults, and adults are expected to keep their emotions in a professional manner. When your emotions are just so displaced, some feel in a daze or not focused. In the end, if one's emotions get the best of them, some situations could end up in a negative spot. The top emotions that are difficult to regulate are anxiety, rage, sorrow, or fear. Those who can not regulate their emotions are diagnosed with what is known as emotion dysregulation. One's mental state then slowly starts to decrease, and it could possibly lead to depression. Studies show that “women in general report experiencing both positive and negative emotions more intensely than men, which might explain why females report greater difficulties with emotion regulation skills compared to males,” (Cornell Research Program).

Though emotions are something everyone endures and sometimes it's difficult to hold them back, there are some ways to keep them maintained for the health of you, but also your relationships. Some recommendations in order to help your mental status with your emotions include taking a breath, journaling, meditation, completing a task to get your mind off of the emotion, sleep, or if needed to be taken to a higher level therapy. Unhealthy ways to deal with an issue of emotional regulation are alcohol/drug abuse, over/under eating, being unsocial, or self injuries. Emotional regulation is something that many lack, but we as people need to make sure we have this skill in check in order to help in our futures. 

Work Cited

Rolston , Abigail. What Is Emotion Regulation and How Do We Do It?, selfinjury.bctr.cornell.edu/perch/resources/what-is-emotion-regulationsinfo-brief.pdf. Accessed 17 Nov. 2024. 

“Emotion Regulation.” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/emotion-regulation. Accessed 17 Nov. 2024.

Topic: Impact of short videos on the brain

Topic: Aging impact on the brain

As we begin to age so does everything in our body, including the brain. When we age some parts of our brain shrink, including the parts in our brain that are essential to learning and other mental activities that we do in our day to day lives. Blood flow decreasing is also another aspect associated with brain aging and inflammation increasing when we respond to an injury or disease is another possibility.  All of these changes affect our mental function no matter the health.

Once we reach our 30 or 40 our brains begin to shrink and by time we reach 60 our brain shrinking increases. Areas of the brain that are responsible for cognitive functions shrink significantly less than other areas of the brain. The frontal lobe is the largest lobe in the brain and is considered to be responsible for our emotions and personalities as individuals. The Hippocampus plays a major role in our learning and memory and also the hippocampus is susceptible to neurological and psychiatric disorders. These changes along with many other elders may start to experience changes remembering things like names, words, and decrease ability to multitask. As we begin to grow older our neurons begin to die and the cells that are also produce a compound called amyloid-beta which is commonly associated with Alzheimers. Overall as we age it ultimately becomes harder for us to to care for ourselves.

“Changes That Occur to the Aging Brain: Columbia Mailman.” Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, 16 Jan. 2024, www.publichealth.columbia.edu/news/changes-occur-aging-brain-what-happens-when-we-get-older. 

How the Aging Brain Affects Thinking | National Institute on Aging, www.nia.nih.gov/health/brain-health/how-aging-brain-affects-thinking. Accessed 17 Nov. 2024.

Topic: How Breathing Affects Memories

If you are ever struggling to remember something, stop and take a deep breath. Our breath holds more power over our brains than we might think. But why is this? Breathing is a secondary thought, an involuntary function that most people don't think about more than twice a day. However, a study led by Christina Zelano at Northwestern University demonstrated that the act of breathing, specifically through the nose, can have a direct impact on cognitive functions such as memory recall. 

Zelanos team highlights that breathing through the nose can modify brain activity in a way that can enhance memory recall. The underlying connection between breathing and memory appears to involve the brain’s olfactory system, which is not only responsible for processing smells but is also closely linked to areas involved in memory, such as the hippocampus. Studies suggest that the rhythmic breathing patterns cause synchronized brain waves from the olfactory bulb to the hippocampus creating an optimal state for recalling memories. 

In addition to influencing memories, nasal breathing has direct impacts on the ANS (autonomic nervous system). Slow controlled nasal breathing activates a branch of the ANS associated with relaxation, focus, and reduced stress. Stress can be a disruptor of memory. It activates the sympathetic nervous system raising cortisol, a hormone that impairs memory and learning. With the decreasing of stress hormones, a calm state can occur, allowing to retain and absorb new information easier. 

In conclusion, nasal breathing does far more than regulate airflow. Though its effects on brain wave synchronization and stress reduction, breathing stands to be a powerful tool for improving memory retention and absorption. 

Neuroscience News:"How Breathing Can Help Improve Memory Recall." Neuroscience News, 25 Oct. 2023, www.neurosciencenews.com/memory-breathing-23360/.

Science Alert:"How Your Breathing Affects Your Memory, According to New Research." ScienceAlert, 24 Oct. 2023, www.sciencealert.com/how-you-breathe-actually-affects-how-you-memorize-things-new-study-finds.

Topic:Football Head Impacts on the brain

Football is a contact sport where hard impacts are common and these impacts take a detrimental toll on the players, specifically their brain. A 2003 study by researchers at Virginia Tech concluded that the average force of the hits the players received was an average of 40G with some upwards of 120G. In comparison, 120G is roughly the same force associated with a severe car crash. Although football's impact on the brain is heavy, the real damage occurs after the initial hit. A survey by the associated press in November of 2009 showed that of the 160 players they interviewed 32 of them had hidden or downplayed the effects of a concussion. Players that continue to play after a concussion or without proper recovery begin to gain a condition known as CTE.

CTE or chronic traumatic encephalopathy is a condition where a protein known as tau builds up in the brain after repeated head impacts or concussions. A team at the National Institute of health inspected the brain of 631 male brain donors who played football for an average of 12 years in order to find a relationship between CTE and impacts made while playing football. The investigation showed that 72% of the brains studied had evidence of CTE. It was found that every additional year played increased the risk of CTE by 15%.

As the CTE progresses and worsens the brain begins to degrade. The symptoms associated with this can be as little as memory loss to as bad as aggression and suicide. These symptoms are known to come up anywhere from months to decades after the end of athletic involvement.

Work Cited

University, Boston. “Frequently Asked Questions about CTE | CTE Center.” Bu.edu, Boston University, 2019, www.bu.edu/cte/about/frequently-asked-questions/. Accessed 16 Nov. 2024.

NYU Langone Health. “Head to Head: The National Football League & Brain Injury.” NYU Langone Health, New York University, 2018, med.nyu.edu/departments-institutes/population-health/divisions-sections-centers/medical-ethics/education/high-school-bioethics-project/learning-scenarios/the-nfl-brain-injury. Accessed 16 Nov. 2024.

Reynolds, Sharon. “How Football Raises the Risk for Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy.” National Institutes of Health (NIH), 11 July 2023, www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/how-football-raises-risk-chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy. Accessed 16 Nov. 2024.

Kuwana, Ellen. “Neuroscience for Kids - Football Concussions in the NFL.” Faculty.washington.edu, Neuroscience for Kids, 18 May 2004, faculty.washington.edu/chudler/nfl.html. Accessed 16 Nov. 2024.

Loneliness Effects on the Brain

Loneliness -- considered perceived loneliness in neuroscientific studies, meaning that the individual considers themself lonely regardless of if they are or are not -- is a common feeling given that humans are social creatures, but the detriments of prolonged loneliness can result in a decline in health, such as a higher risk for cardiovascular disease, an increase in the likelihood of dementia, and an increased risk to develop more concerning extents of anxiety and depression. All of these, if disregarded, can increase the mortality rate of a severely lonely person.

Moreover, new studies are revealing that loneliness causes a tangible, corporeal effect on the brain: inflammation and neural pathways changes, which ultimately alter the entire inner workings of the brain and nervous system. For instance, one study found that when a person is chronically lonely, their brain will respond more actively to negative stimuli than positive stimuli, suggesting that the brain has gone into a hypervigilant, self-preservation mode. This will also cause the individual to experience mood changes to accommodate the brain's desire for self-preservation, leading to a potential increase in hostility. Overall, studies show, when a person is severely lonely, that that individual is trying to defend against negative stimuli (such as rejection or judgment), even if their increased hostility or temperament may lead to pushing others way, making severe loneliness a difficult loophole to break through.

Works Cited

Finley, Anna J, and Stacey M Schaefer. “Affective Neuroscience of Loneliness: Potential Mechanisms Underlying the Association between Perceived Social Isolation, Health, and Well-Being.” Journal of Psychiatry and Brain Science, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2022, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9910279/.

“What Does Loneliness Do to the Brain?” EverydayHealth.Com, www.everydayhealth.com/emotional-health/how-does-loneliness-affect-the-brain/. Accessed 15 Nov. 2024.

Topic: Impact of sleep on the brain

Intro: Sleep is an integral part of the brain's function. Without the proper amount of sleep, the effects on the brain can range from minor to severe. More than 70 million Americans are considered sleep-deprived and the hours they haven't slept during add up to major health concerns. Sleep deprivation can cause fatigue, loss of coordination, mental and neurological issues like hallucinations or depression, a weakened immune system, and a weakened performance of general physical activities. A lack of sleep prevents proper REM cycles, leading to memory issues because a deep sleep state is important for memory retention. Sleeplessness can also cause a weakened immune system; when the body is resting it produces cytokines that signal cells in the immune system to continue working. Without proper sleep the body doesn't do that, and sleep-deprived people are more prone to sickness.

The right amount of sleep cannot just counter all the issues that arise from a lack of rest. Good sleep for teens is 8 to 10 hours and for adults, it is 7 to 9 hours. The benefits of this proper amount of sleep are better mental and neurological health, a healthy heart, improved mental function, proper blood sugar regulation, stress relief, improved athletic performance, and maintaining a healthy body weight. Without the recommended hours of sleep, the brain is weak, confused, and lost. Mental functions and many body regulations disappear but it is preventable with proper scheduling and naps.

• Citations:

  •  Cleveland Clinic. (2020, June 16). Here’s What Happens When You Don’t Get Enough Sleep (And How Much You Really Need a Night). Cleveland Clinic. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/happens-body-dont-get-enough-sleep

  • National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (2024, September 5). Brain Basics: Understanding Sleep. Www.ninds.nih.gov; National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/public-education/brain-basics/brain-basics-understanding-sleep

  • Roland, J. (2023, February 1). Sleep Calculator: How Many Hours and Sleep Cycles Do You Need? Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/sleep/sleep-calculator#sleep-needs

  • Summer, J., & Singh, A. (2022, April 14). Eight Health Benefits of Sleep. Sleep Foundation; Sleep Foundation. https://www.sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works/benefits-of-sleep

Topic: Telomere length and hippocampal neurogenesis

Introduction (define key terminology and introduce the topic): According to Palmos et al. (2020), shortening telomeres specifically in the progenitor cells of the hippocampus may manifest as a decline in cognition or as a psychiatric disorder. Telomeres are the ends of the chromosome that provide additional nucleotides that can be sloughed off without damage to the chromosome itself, but is correlated with cellular aging. This also occurs in the hippocampus which is responsible for cognition, memory, learning, and mood regulation. Neurogenesis is defined as the development of either new neuronal connetions or mitotic division of neurons.

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Results and Discussion (What conclusions can be drawn, what should your fellow classmates take away from this topic): The authors found the correlation between telomere shortening and depressed cognition, schizophrenia, and biopolar.

Citation: Palmos, A. B., Duarte, R. R. R., Smeeth, D. M., Hedges, E. C., Nixon, D. F., Thuret, S., & Powell, T. R. (2020, December). Telomere length and human hippocampal neurogenesis. Neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7784985/#:~:text=Short%20telomere%20length%20is%20a%20risk%20factor%20for,volumes%2C%20age-related%20cognitive%20decline%20and%20psychiatric%20disorder%20risk.